 The "Taoism" translates the Chinese terms Daojiao ( 道教 ) and Daojia ( 道家 ) . The character Dao ( 道 ) literally means "path" or "way", but in Chinese religion or philosophy has taken on more abstract meanings. The compound Daojiao refers to "Daoism" as a "religion"; Daojia refers to the activity of scholars in their studies.
Chinese alchemy, Chinese astrology, Chinese cuisine, many Chinese martial arts, Chinese traditional medicine, fengshui ( 风水 ) and many styles of qigong ( 气功 ) breath training disciplines have some relationship with Taoism.
Depending on how it is defined, Taoism's origins may be traced to the prehistoric Chinese religion; to the composition of the Daodejing ( 道德经 third or fourth century BC ) ; or to the activity of Zhang Daoling. Alternatively, one could argue that "Taoism" as a religious identity only arose later, by way of contrast with the newly-arrived religion of Buddhism, or with the fourth-century codification of the Shangching and Lingbao texts.
Warring States Period ( 403-222 BC )
The texts of the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi date back to this period. Scholars disagree as to which is earlier ( if the question has any meaning given the likelihood of each being composed by multiple authors over a gradual period ) . Some parts of the Zhuangzi quote some parts of the Daodejing. The name "Laozi" may have been assigned to the latter because of Sima Qian ( 司马迁 ) 's assertion that a certain "Laozi" was the teacher of Confucius ( thus giving Taoism seniority over its ideological rival ) .
Both texts are claimed by later Taoist religious movements, who variously interpret them in line with their own beliefs. To what extent such readings accurately reflect their original meaning, is a point of controversy.
Han Dynasty ( 206 BC - AD 220 )
By the early Han, Laozi ( 老子 ) came to be worshipped as a god--either in association with or conflated with the Yellow Emperor. A major text from this "Huang-Lao" movement would be the Huainanzi, which interprets earlier Taoist teachings in light of the quest for immortality ( including drugs, sexual practices, and breathing techniques ) .
Zhang Daoling ( 张道陵 ) began receiving new revelations from Laozi in AD 142, and founded the Tianshi ( "Celestial Masters" ) sect around them. He performed spiritual healing, and collected dues of "five pecks of rice" from his followers ( thus providing an alternative name for his movement ) . Zhang Daoling's major message was that the world-order as his followers knew it would soon come to an end, and be succeeded by an era of "Great Peace" ( Taiping ) . In fact their activities did hasten the downfall of the Han dynasty. The same could be said of their contemporaries and fellow Taoists, the Yellow Turban ( 黄巾起义 ) sect. Zhang's grandson set up a theocratic state in what is now Sichuan province. Today's Zhengyi sect claims continuity with Zhang Daoling.
Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in AD 166. The Yin and Yang and "five elements ( 五行 ) " theories date from this time, but were not yet integrated into Taoism.
The name Daojia comes from the Han Dynasty. In Sima Qian's history ( ch. 63 ) it refers to immortals; in Liu Xiang it refers to Laozi and Zhuangzi. Daojiao came to be applied to the religious movements mentioned above. The two terms were used interchangeably until modern times. ( We owe the distinction to Confucian writers. ) The earliest commentary on the Daodejing is actually that of Heshang Gong ( the "Riverside Master" ) , a religious Taoist.
Three Kingdoms Period ( AD 220-265 )
The Xuanxue school, including Wang Bi, focuses on the texts of Laozi and Zhuangzi.
Six Dynasties ( AD 316-589 )
Taoist alchemist Ge Hong ( 葛洪 ) , also known as Baopuzi was active in the third and fourth centuries AD and had great influence on later Taoism. Major scriptures were produced during this time period, including The Shangching ( "Highest Purity" ) ( 365-70 ) and Lingbao ( "Sacred Treasure" ) scriptures ( 397-402 ) received at Maoshan. The Shangching revelations were received by Yang Xi, a relative of Ge Hong's, which emphasized meditative visualization ( neiguan ) . They spoke of the Shangching heaven, which stood above what had been previously considered the highest heaven by Celestial Master Taoists. Yang Xi's revelations consisted of visitations from the residents of this heaven ( the "Zhen Ren" ) many of whom were ancestors of a circle of aristocrats from southern China. These Zhen Ren spoke of an apocalypse which was to arrive in 384, and claimed that only certain people from this aristocratic circle had been chosen to be saved. For the first century of its existence, Shangching Taoism was isolated to this aristocratic circle. However, Tao Hongjing ( 456-536 ) codified and wrote commentaries on Yang Xi's writings and allowed for the creation of Shangching Taoism as a popular religion. The Lingbao scriptures added some Buddhist elements such as chanted rituals, and an emphasis on universal salvation.
The Huahujing ( "Scripture of Conversion of Barbarians" ) claimed that Laozi went to India, where he taught less advanced doctrines under the name of Buddha. Buddhists found its premise objectionable, and emperors regularly condemned it. A similar claim is made in the Xishengjing ( the "Scripture of Western Ascension" ) .
Tang Dynasty ( AD 618-907 )
Taoism gained official status in China during the Tang dynasty, whose emperors claimed Laozi as their relative. However, it was forced to compete with Confucianism and Buddhism, its major rivals, for patronage and rank. Emperor Xuanzong ( 685-762 ) , who ruled at the height of the Tang, wrote commentaries on texts from all three of these traditions, which exemplifies the fact that in many people's lives they were not mutually exclusive. This marks the beginning of a long-lived tendency within imperial China, in which the government supported all three movements.
Emperor Tang Gaozong added the Daodejing to the list of "classics" ( jing, 经 ) to be studied for the imperial examinations; hence the appearance of -jing in its title.
Song Dynasty ( 960-1279 )
Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes. Several Song emperors were active in collecting Taoist texts and publishing editions of the Daozang.
Yuan Dynasty ( 1279-1367 )
Neidan ( "Interior Alchemy" ) became a major emphasis of the Quanzhen sect, whose practitioners followed a monastic model inspired by Buddhism. One of its leaders, Qiu Chuji became a teacher of Genghis Khan ( 成吉思汗 ) . Originally from Shanxi and Shandong, the sect established its main center in Beijing's Baiyunguan ( "White Cloud Monastery" ) . Before the end of the dynasty, the Celestial Masters sect ( and Buddhism ) again gained preeminence.
Nationalist Period ( 1912-1949 )
Guomindang ( 国民党 China Nationalist Party ) leaders embrace science, modernity, and Western culture, including ( to some extent ) Christianity. Viewing the popular religion as reactionary and parasitic, they confiscate some temples for public buildings, and otherwise attempt to control traditional religious activity.
People's Republic of China ( 1949-present )
The Communist Party of China ( 中国共产党 ) , officially atheistic, initially suppressed Taoism along with other religions. Much of the Taoist infrastructure was destroyed. Monks and priests were sent to labor camps. This practice intensified during the Cultural Revolution ( 文化大革命 ) from 1966 to 1976, nearly eradicating most Taoist sites.
Deng Xiaoping ( 邓小平 ) eventually restored some religious tolerance beginning in 1982. Subsequently, communist leaders have recognized Taoism as an important traditional religion of China and also as a potential lucrative focus for tourism, so many of the more scenic temples and monasteries have been repaired and reopened.
Taoism is one of five religions recognized by the PRC, which insists on controlling its activities through a state bureaucracy ( the China Taoist Association ) . Sensitive areas include the relationship of the Zhengyi Taoists with their sect's lineage-holder ( he lives in Taiwan ) ; and the status of various traditional temple activities ( astrology, shamanism ) which have been criticized as "superstitious" or "feudal". |
